# **The Paradox of Unwilling Participation: Ethical Considerations in the Public Forensic Study of Digital Narcissistic Manipulation**  
*Mark Randall Havens*  
*Neutralizing Narcissism, Independent Researcher*  

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**Abstract:**  
The rise of *digital narcissistic manipulation*—bad-faith actors who exploit online platforms through deceit, gaslighting, and coercive rhetoric—presents a vexing ethical and legal paradox. These individuals profoundly influence public discourse yet will neither consent to nor cooperate with research into their behaviors. This paper confronts the *paradox of unwilling participation*, proposing a **standardized ethical framework** for the public forensic study of such actors. We justify conducting covert analysis on publicly available data when traditional consent is unattainable, delineating ethical boundaries to protect researcher integrity and subject rights. We also map the **legal precedents** that empower scholars to publish forensic analyses of public online behavior, drawing on free speech protections and case law that affirms minimal privacy expectations for content voluntarily placed in the public domain ([No Invasion of Privacy for Publication of MySpace Posting | Littler Mendelson P.C.](https://www.littler.com/publication-press/publication/no-invasion-privacy-publication-myspace-posting#:~:text=case%20even%20though%20she%20had,intentional%20infliction%20of%20emotional%20distress)) ([What’s Not to Like? Using Social Media In Employment Litigation | California Peculiarities Employment Law Blog](https://www.calpeculiarities.com/2016/11/30/friend-or-foe-requests-using-social-media-in-employment-litigation/#:~:text=But%20what%20about%20publicly%20available,2009)). Grounding our approach in both **empirical studies** of digital deception and **theoretical models** of narcissistic abuse, we illustrate methodologies for identifying manipulative tactics in situ. Leveraging the lead author’s expertise in digital forensics and deception detection, we argue that rigorous, ethical scrutiny of online narcissists is not only legally permissible but urgently needed. Finally, we position this work as a landmark contribution toward establishing accepted standards for ethical digital forensics, ensuring researchers can expose malicious manipulation without compromising on ethical or legal norms.

## Introduction  
Public discourse is increasingly shaped by individuals deploying **narcissistic manipulation tactics** online—spreading misinformation, sowing discord, and exploiting others psychologically to aggrandize themselves. These bad-faith actors (often exhibiting traits of narcissism or related “Dark Triad” personalities) weaponize social media and forums to distort truth and evade accountability ([Frontiers | The role of narcissism and motivated reasoning on misinformation propagation](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/communication/articles/10.3389/fcomm.2024.1472631/full#:~:text=An%20explanation%20for%20misinformation%20spread,Hughes%20and)) ([
            Troll story: The dark tetrad and online trolling revisited with a glance at humor - PMC
        ](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10004561/#:~:text=Research%20has%20shown%20a%20relationship,9%20%E2%80%93%2029)). Studying their behavior is essential for understanding and mitigating online harms. Yet researchers face a fundamental ethical quandary: such manipulators are *unwilling participants* in any study. They will not give consent and, if approached, are likely to *deceive, obstruct, or retaliate* to protect their egos. This creates a paradox – how can we ethically study those who *refuse* to be studied, especially when their behavior is itself unethical?

**Ethics and Information Technology** scholarship has examined internet research ethics for *willing* participants and anonymized big-data studies ([
            Digital Trespass: Ethical and Terms-of-Use Violations by Researchers Accessing Data From an Online Patient Community - PMC
        ](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6403524/#:~:text=Unfortunately%2C%20privacy%20has%20been%20considered,identification%20has%20been)), but the unique challenges of researching hostile actors in real time demand new guidelines. Traditional human-subjects ethics prioritize informed consent and participant welfare. However, *digital narcissists* operating in public spaces present a case where seeking consent is impractical and may even undermine the research (by alerting the subject to observation). The *public interest* in exposing manipulation must be weighed against respect for persons. This paper addresses that tension directly, asking: **Under what ethical and legal conditions can researchers justifiably conduct forensic analyses of publicly visible bad-faith behavior?** 

To answer this question, we synthesize insights from computer security, forensic linguistics, cyber law, and research ethics. We first propose a **Standardized Ethical Framework** for such studies, articulating principles that balance the imperative to uncover truth with the obligation to minimize harm. Next, we outline the **legal framework** that permits publishing analyses of public behavior, citing free speech protections and privacy precedents (e.g. U.S. case law holding that there is no reasonable expectation of privacy for content posted on public social media ([No Invasion of Privacy for Publication of MySpace Posting | Littler Mendelson P.C.](https://www.littler.com/publication-press/publication/no-invasion-privacy-publication-myspace-posting#:~:text=case%20even%20though%20she%20had,intentional%20infliction%20of%20emotional%20distress))). We then provide **empirical and theoretical justification** for our approach, drawing on recent studies of online deception and narcissism to demonstrate both the feasibility and scientific value of scrutinizing these unwilling subjects ([Frontiers | The role of narcissism and motivated reasoning on misinformation propagation](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/communication/articles/10.3389/fcomm.2024.1472631/full#:~:text=An%20explanation%20for%20misinformation%20spread,Hughes%20and)) ([Social media fatigue and narcissism linked to believing and sharing misinformation, finds 8-country study](https://phys.org/news/2023-10-social-media-fatigue-narcissism-linked.html#:~:text=A%20study%20by%20Nanyang%20Technological,misinformation%20and%20share%20it%20online)). Throughout, we leverage the lead author’s practical background—*Mark Randall Havens, MSM (Information Systems Security)* with specialized research in deception detection and online manipulation—to ground our proposals in real-world forensic methodology. Finally, we argue that establishing ethical and legal norms in this arena is vital for the future of **ethical digital forensics**, so that investigators can shine light on manipulative online behavior without overstepping moral or legal boundaries. In doing so, we aim to position this work as a *landmark contribution* that sparks both scholarly and policy-level recognition of the need for standardized practices in studying digital manipulation.

## Ethical Framework for Forensic Analysis of Unwilling Participants  
Researching those who *manipulate others in bad faith* online raises complex ethical issues. Unlike cooperative research subjects, narcissistic manipulators will not volunteer for studies or adhere to norms of honesty. Engaging them directly may even *amplify* harm (e.g. by provoking harassment or giving them a platform to spin narratives). Thus, conventional ethical protocols must be adapted. Below, we outline key ethical complexities and propose a standardized framework to guide researchers:

- **Necessity and Beneficence:** *Is the research justified in the absence of consent?* We argue yes, when the knowledge gained could help protect communities from deception and abuse. The potential benefits to the public (e.g. exposing disinformation campaigns or patterns of gaslighting) can outweigh the absence of subject consent, provided the research is conducted responsibly. In ethical terms, the principle of **beneficence** – maximizing societal benefit and minimizing harm – supports studying malign online behavior to prevent broader damage. Similar justifications underlie journalism’s investigations of wrongdoing or criminology studies of criminals, where seeking perpetrator consent is neither expected nor feasible. Researchers must, however, ensure the study is *necessary* and address a significant harm or knowledge gap, rather than prurient interest or personal vendetta.

- **Respect for Persons and Privacy:** *How to respect subject rights when consent is not obtained?* Here we differentiate between *private individuals* and those acting *in public digital spaces*. Our framework strictly confines analysis to **publicly available data** – posts, comments, and media the individual themselves made public. This adheres to an important ethical boundary: not intruding into truly private communications or personal information. By focusing on what the subject has willingly exposed to public view, we respect the boundary of privacy as defined by the subject’s own actions. Notably, internet research ethicists caution that just because data is public does not mean “anything goes” ([
            Digital Trespass: Ethical and Terms-of-Use Violations by Researchers Accessing Data From an Online Patient Community - PMC
        ](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6403524/#:~:text=Unfortunately%2C%20privacy%20has%20been%20considered,identification%20has%20been)). We heed this by avoiding any *deception or intrusion* beyond observation. The researcher should not engage in entrapment, sockpuppetry, or other active interference that could be deemed unethical. Instead, the role is that of an *analyst of the public record*. Additionally, where possible, researchers can anonymize or pseudonymize the subject in publications (especially if the individual is not a public figure) to reduce potential harm – unless revealing identity is crucial for context (for example, if the behavior is part of a known public figure’s actions).

- **Truthfulness and Integrity:** When studying a dishonest actor, the *researcher* must uphold the highest standards of honesty and rigor. This includes accurate data collection (e.g. preserving original posts via screenshots or archives to prevent later denial), objective analysis using predefined criteria, and peer or mentor review to check for biases. Because the subject cannot be asked for verification (and would likely lie), extra care is needed to corroborate evidence (cross-verifying dates, links, or involvement of other users). The framework emphasizes **forensic integrity**: use of reliable forensic tools, maintaining an audit trail of analytic steps, and never fabricating or distorting content. This integrity protects against legitimate criticism and ensures that any conclusions drawn are based on verifiable fact, not conjecture. It also guards the *dignity* of even an uncooperative subject by ensuring they are not falsely accused. In practice, this means applying the same standards as one would in a court-admissible digital forensic investigation for evidence handling and analysis.

- **Non-Maleficence (Do No Harm):** Researchers should aim to minimize harm to all parties. While exposing manipulative behavior may justifiably have negative consequences for the perpetrator’s reputation, the intent is not to punish but to inform and protect the public. We must avoid *unnecessary* harm – for example, refrain from publishing sensitive personal details that are irrelevant to the manipulative behavior. The analysis should focus on the behavior and content, not ad hominem attacks. Additionally, consider the safety of researchers and other involved individuals: publishing on powerful narcissists can invite retaliation (legal or personal). Measures like using institutionally approved channels, legal review of drafts, and even personal safety planning (in extreme cases) are ethical precautions. Moreover, if the research uncovers possible illegal activities by the subject (e.g. fraud, credible threats), ethical protocol would be to consider reporting to appropriate authorities – but carefully, to avoid vigilantism or false accusations.

- **Independent Oversight:** Even if formal Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval is not strictly required for public data research, we recommend some form of ethical oversight or consultation. This could be an IRB, ethics committee, or at minimum mentorship from senior researchers versed in ethics. Such oversight can validate that the study’s importance warrants the approach and that safeguards are adequate. It can also provide an external check on the researcher’s potential biases, given the adversarial nature of the topic. The framework thus encourages transparency within the research process: document ethical deliberations, and if feasible, disclose in publications the steps taken to address ethical challenges. By doing so, we build a culture of accountability in this new domain of **forensic scholarship**.

Using these principles, we propose the following **guidelines for ethical forensic analysis of unwilling participants** in digital spaces:

1. **Public Data Only:** Collect and analyze only information the subject has made public. Do not attempt to access private accounts or encrypted communications. This respects legal and ethical privacy boundaries ([No Invasion of Privacy for Publication of MySpace Posting | Littler Mendelson P.C.](https://www.littler.com/publication-press/publication/no-invasion-privacy-publication-myspace-posting#:~:text=case%20even%20though%20she%20had,intentional%20infliction%20of%20emotional%20distress)) and ensures the subject’s *unwitting participation* remains within the realm they themselves opened to the world.  
2. **No Direct Engagement:** Avoid interacting with the subject in deceptive ways (e.g. fake personas to provoke responses) as part of data collection. Such engagement could cross ethical lines and even backfire by altering the subject’s behavior (thus contaminating the study). Instead, use *observational* methods, treating the digital environment as one would a public space in an ethnographic study.  
3. **Anonymize and Protect Identities when Appropriate:** If the subject is not already a public figure identified in the discourse, consider using an alias or general descriptor in publication (e.g. “Subject A, a participant in Forum X”), to focus on behavior over identity. Likewise, protect the identities of any third parties (victims, bystanders) who appear in the data, unless they are also public figures or have given consent. This guideline prevents unnecessary reputational harm.  
4. **Rigorous Fact-Checking:** Triangulate evidence whenever possible. If the subject claims a false credential, verify it through independent sources; if they spread an image or quote, trace it to the source to confirm manipulation. By rooting the analysis in provable fact, the researcher upholds truthfulness even as they document the subject’s falsehoods. Every claim made in the analysis should either be directly evidenced by the subject’s own public statements or supported by a citation to other reliable data.  
5. **Neutral, Respectful Tone:** In writing the analysis, maintain an academic, non-sensational tone. The goal is not to malign or ridicule the subject, but to shed light on their tactics. Adhering to this tone underscores the researcher’s impartiality and mitigates perceptions of bias or personal attack. It aligns with the ethical obligation to treat even unsympathetic subjects fairly.  
6. **Harm Assessment:** Continuously assess potential harms at each stage. Before publishing, weigh the consequences: Could the analysis inadvertently give the manipulator more attention or new strategies? (Mitigate by focusing on tactics rather than amplifying their specific messages.) Could it expose vulnerable individuals (e.g. victims of the manipulator) to unwanted attention? (Mitigate by anonymizing victim identities and contextual details.) This proactive harm assessment reflects a core element of our framework – foresight and responsibility for the ripple effects of publication.  
7. **Compliance with Platform Policies and Laws:** Ensure that data was obtained in a manner consistent with platform terms of service and legal statutes. For instance, scraping a public forum should not violate the forum’s anti-scraping policy if such policies have legal force; if they do, alternative methods (platform APIs or permitted archival tools) should be used. Acting within legal and contractual boundaries not only avoids ethical pitfalls but also protects the researcher from liability that could undermine the research’s impact.

By adhering to these guidelines, researchers can ethically justify the study of individuals who do not consent to participate. This *standardized ethical framework* acknowledges the *extraordinary circumstances* of studying malicious actors while holding researchers to professional standards. It seeks to protect all stakeholders: the public (by enabling vital research), the subject (by not unnecessarily infringing on rights or dignity), and the researcher (by encouraging ethical caution and legality). Through clear boundaries and reflective practice, we transform the paradox of unwilling participation into a solvable ethical challenge – allowing scholars to confront digital manipulation in a morally responsible way.

## Legal Precedents and Framework Supporting Forensic Publication  
In addition to ethical considerations, researchers must navigate the *legal landscape* when investigating and publishing analyses of digital narcissistic manipulators. Fortunately, several legal principles and precedents support the right to study and publicly document such behavior, especially when it occurs in open forums. Here we outline the key legal frameworks that empower this research, focusing on free speech protections, case law on privacy, and the limits of personal data rights in public discourse.

**1. Free Speech and Academic Freedom:** In jurisdictions like the United States, the First Amendment provides robust protection for publishing commentary and analysis on matters of public concern. Forensic research on manipulative online behavior squarely falls under commentary on matters of public interest, particularly when such behavior affects communities or discourse broadly (e.g. spreading misinformation about public health, or harassing journalists/activists). Courts have long held that *truthful statements* about others, or *opinions based on disclosed facts*, are protected speech. Academic publications benefit from these protections as well as traditions of **academic freedom**, which the U.S. Supreme Court has called “of transcendent value to all of us and not merely to the teachers concerned” (Keyishian v. Board of Regents, 1967). In practical terms, if a researcher publishes a fact-based analysis that individual X engaged in manipulative behavior Y (with evidence), this is generally protected from legal liability. Even if the subject finds it unflattering, they would have limited recourse so long as the publication is not knowingly false or maliciously defamatory. Moreover, many U.S. states have **anti-SLAPP (Strategic Lawsuit Against Public Participation)** statutes designed to quickly dismiss lawsuits aimed at chilling speech on public issues. Should a narcissistic actor attempt to sue a researcher for publishing an analysis, these laws can provide an added shield, leading to swift dismissal if the work addresses a public concern and is founded on verifiable public data.

**2. No Expectation of Privacy in Public Posts:** Privacy law draws a line between what is considered *private fact* and *public fact*. Once an individual voluntarily shares information in a public platform, the law treats it as published to the world. A landmark example is *Moreno v. Hanford Sentinel, Inc.* (Cal. App. 2009), where a woman’s personal essay posted to her public MySpace page was later printed in a newspaper without her permission. The court rejected her privacy claim, ruling she “could not have had a reasonable expectation of privacy” for material she made public online ([No Invasion of Privacy for Publication of MySpace Posting | Littler Mendelson P.C.](https://www.littler.com/publication-press/publication/no-invasion-privacy-publication-myspace-posting#:~:text=case%20even%20though%20she%20had,intentional%20infliction%20of%20emotional%20distress)). Similarly, California courts have explicitly stated that there can be *no expectation of privacy* in publicly posted social media content ([What’s Not to Like? Using Social Media In Employment Litigation | California Peculiarities Employment Law Blog](https://www.calpeculiarities.com/2016/11/30/friend-or-foe-requests-using-social-media-in-employment-litigation/#:~:text=But%20what%20about%20publicly%20available,2009)). This precedent is crucial for researchers: it affirms that using and republishing information from public profiles or forums does not violate the subject’s privacy rights. So long as the data is obtained from a source open to the general public (a publicly viewable Twitter feed, a blog, an open Facebook page, etc.), the subject cannot claim *intrusion* or *publication of private facts* in a legal action. Our research framework strictly adheres to this principle by only using public data, thereby operating within the realm of protected information use. It is important to note that this applies to content the person *themselves* disclosed; digging up personal data from third parties or leaked sources may enter a gray area. But if the researcher sticks to what the narcissistic manipulator has posted or done in plain view, privacy law remains on the researcher’s side.

**3. Right to Publish Factual and Opinion Analysis:** A forensic analysis often involves not just republishing the subject’s statements, but also offering interpretation, context, and conclusions (for example, labeling behavior as “deceptive” or describing patterns as “gaslighting tactics”). Legally, these analyses are protected as long as they can be seen as **opinion based on disclosed facts**. In defamation law, there is a well-established defense that pure opinion (which cannot be proven true or false) is protected, especially if the facts underlying the opinion are revealed to readers ([No Invasion of Privacy for Publication of MySpace Posting | Littler Mendelson P.C.](https://www.littler.com/publication-press/publication/no-invasion-privacy-publication-myspace-posting#:~:text=case%20even%20though%20she%20had,intentional%20infliction%20of%20emotional%20distress)). Our publication strategy, by transparently including evidence (quotes, timestamps, links to archives), invites readers to see exactly the basis for our conclusions. This transparency not only strengthens academic rigor but also provides a legal safe harbor: it signals that we are not making unfounded accusations but rather interpretations of documented behavior. Furthermore, truth is an absolute defense to defamation. Identifying instances where a person lied or manipulated (with proof from their own posts) is a *truthful statement* about their actions. Even strong labels like “narcissistic abuser” or “propagandist” can be defended if they arise from true, disclosed facts and are framed as the author’s analysis. The First Amendment leans toward protecting such speech to ensure open debate. As an example, consider a researcher publishing that “User X employed a coordinated trolling campaign to harass forum members, consistent with narcissistic abuse patterns” and then supporting this with excerpts of User X’s harassing posts. This kind of statement would likely be deemed a mix of fact (they did harass) and opinion (it’s narcissistic abuse) – protected so long as the factual part is correct.

**4. Intellectual Property and Fair Use:** Another legal aspect is quoting or screenshotting the subject’s content. Typically, the subject holds copyright on their original posts or images. However, U.S. copyright law (and equivalents elsewhere) includes *fair use* exceptions that favor commentary, criticism, scholarship, and research. Using excerpts of the subject’s words or screenshots of their public posts for the purpose of analysis and commentary is a quintessential fair use: the purpose is transformative (turning their content into subject matter for critique), and the amount used is only as much as necessary to make the analytical point. Courts have upheld such uses in academic and journalistic contexts, especially when the original work was publicly available and the new use adds insight or critique rather than superseding the original. Therefore, researchers publishing a few lines from a person’s tweet or forum comment, within an analytic piece, are very likely within legal fair use bounds. In practice, to bolster the fair use argument, one should use only relevant snippets (not large wholesale reproductions of someone’s blog, for instance) and ensure the analysis clearly accompanies the quoted material.

**5. Data Protection Regulations:** In an international context, laws like the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) impose duties when “personal data” is processed. Notably, even public social media data is considered personal data under GDPR. However, GDPR contains exemptions for academic research and for freedom of expression/journalism. A researcher in the EU studying a pseudonymous online narcissist might invoke the “research purposes” exemption, which allows data processing if appropriate safeguards are in place (e.g. data minimization, security) and the research is in the public interest. Additionally, if the work is seen as journalistic or relating to free expression, national implementations of GDPR often exempt it to protect free speech. The key is that our ethical framework’s safeguards (pseudonymizing where possible, using only public data, etc.) also help meet the proportionality and necessity tests of laws like GDPR. Meanwhile, in the US, there is currently no omnibus data protection law at the federal level; use of publicly published data for research is generally permissible as long as one does not violate specific statutes (like the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, which, after the *hiQ v. LinkedIn* decisions, is not violated by scraping publicly accessible data ([What Recent Rulings in 'hiQ v. LinkedIn' and Other Cases Say About ...](https://www.fbm.com/publications/what-recent-rulings-in-hiq-v-linkedin-and-other-cases-say-about-the-legality-of-data-scraping/#:~:text=What%20Recent%20Rulings%20in%20%27hiQ,%E2%80%9Cunauthorized%20person%20hiring%20an))). Indeed, the *hiQ* case (9th Circuit, 2019) affirmed that scraping information from public profiles is not illegal hacking under the CFAA, reinforcing that researchers can gather online public data through technical means if needed. Nonetheless, researchers should be mindful of platform **Terms of Service**: while violating a TOS is usually a contract matter, not a crime, it could lead to account suspension or other issues. Ethically and legally, it’s prudent to adhere to platform rules or use officially provided data access when possible.

**6. Case Law Illustrations:** Beyond Moreno, there are other instructive cases. In *Bartnicki v. Vopper* (2001), the U.S. Supreme Court held that a radio host could not be punished for broadcasting an illegally intercepted phone call that he obtained lawfully and that involved a matter of public concern. The principle from Bartnicki is that *publication of lawfully obtained truthful information* on a public issue is protected. In our context, the information (the manipulator’s posts) is lawfully obtained (from public web pages) and the issue (their behavior’s impact) is of public concern, so this principle offers an extra layer of First Amendment protection. Another example: the realm of opinion and criticism is highlighted in *Hustler Magazine v. Falwell* (1988). While about parody, the case underscored that even outrageous or offensive statements about public figures are protected to ensure breathing space for free debate. If our subject is a public figure (say, a widely followed influencer or political operative), they would need to prove “actual malice” (knowing falsehood or reckless disregard for truth) to win a defamation case—an extremely high bar, given our commitment to truth and evidence. Even if the subject is not a public figure, our careful methodology means any claim we publish is backed by evidence, negating negligence. Thus, legal risk remains low.

In summary, the legal framework strongly favors the **right to research, analyze, and publish** findings on publicly observable online behavior. So long as researchers act in good faith, stick to the truth, and respect clearly defined privacy boundaries, the law (especially in liberal democracies) provides multiple layers of protection: constitutional free speech, statutory and common-law privileges for fair comment, and the lack of privacy claims over public acts. This legal reassurance is crucial—researchers should feel empowered that uncovering and disseminating knowledge about digital manipulation is not only ethically justified but legally sanctioned. By understanding these precedents and guidelines, we solidify a foundation upon which responsible public forensic research can thrive without undue fear of legal reprisal.

## Empirical and Theoretical Justification  
The impetus to study narcissistic manipulators is further reinforced by a growing body of empirical research and theoretical models that illuminate how such individuals operate in digital environments. By situating our forensic approach within this scholarly context, we demonstrate both *why* analyzing these actors is necessary for scientific and societal progress and *how* existing theories guide a robust methodology.

**Empirical Studies on Digital Manipulation:** Recent studies have underscored the real impact and distinct patterns of behavior associated with narcissistic or otherwise malicious online actors. For instance, Volkmer et al. (2023) found a clear correlation between online trolling behaviors and the “Dark Tetrad” of personality traits: narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism ([
            Troll story: The dark tetrad and online trolling revisited with a glance at humor - PMC
        ](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10004561/#:~:text=Research%20has%20shown%20a%20relationship,9%20%E2%80%93%2029)). In their experimental study, individuals who scored higher on these dark traits (including narcissistic entitlement and lack of empathy) were significantly more likely to engage in disruptive trolling of others ([
            Troll story: The dark tetrad and online trolling revisited with a glance at humor - PMC
        ](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10004561/#:~:text=Internet%20trolling%20is%20considered%20a,randomly%20assigned%20to%20a%20social)) ([
            Troll story: The dark tetrad and online trolling revisited with a glance at humor - PMC
        ](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10004561/#:~:text=Research%20has%20shown%20a%20relationship,9%20%E2%80%93%2029)). This empirical link supports the notion that *narcissistic manipulators are not just anecdotal villains*, but identifiable through psychological profiles that manifest in communication patterns. Similarly, an eight-country study published in 2023 highlighted that people high in narcissism, especially when experiencing “social media fatigue,” are more prone to believe and share misinformation ([Social media fatigue and narcissism linked to believing and sharing misinformation, finds 8-country study](https://phys.org/news/2023-10-social-media-fatigue-narcissism-linked.html#:~:text=A%20study%20by%20Nanyang%20Technological,misinformation%20and%20share%20it%20online)). The combination of ego-driven worldviews and lowered cognitive vigilance (fatigue) creates a toxic recipe whereby narcissistic individuals become *superspreaders of false or manipulative content*. Such findings empirically justify focusing research attention on narcissistic manipulators: they are disproportionately influential in propagating misleading information and hostile interactions online.

Another relevant thread of empirical work is in **deception detection and forensic linguistics**. Advances in natural language processing and social network analysis have enabled researchers to detect deceptive or coordinated behavior at scale. For example, studies on disinformation networks have used linguistic markers and posting patterns to identify coordinated inauthentic accounts (bots or trolls). While much of that research targets state-sponsored propaganda, the same techniques apply to a single skilled manipulator orchestrating multiple personas or narratives. Forensic linguists have shown that *individuals do leave “stylistic fingerprints”* in their writing – including consistency (or inconsistency) in syntax, vocabulary, pronoun usage, and tone. A deceptive actor might exhibit telltale signs such as excessive use of evasive phrasing, contradictions over time, or unnatural repetition of certain talking points. Empirical analyses of known fraudsters’ communications, for instance, reveal linguistic patterns like an abundance of first-person pronouns (indicative of self-focus) or sudden shifts to second-person attacks when challenged (a possible marker of defensive aggression). While findings on narcissists’ language are mixed (e.g. some studies debunk the idea that narcissists overuse “I” pronouns ([Linguistic Markers of Grandiose Narcissism: A LIWC Analysis of 15 ...](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335760820_Linguistic_Markers_of_Grandiose_Narcissism_A_LIWC_Analysis_of_15_Samples#:~:text=Linguistic%20Markers%20of%20Grandiose%20Narcissism%3A,other%20language%20use%20remains%20unclear)), yet note other markers like more anger-related words or exaggerations), the broader point is that there are measurable facets of communication that correlate with manipulative intent.

Our own preliminary case observations align with these scholarly insights. In a pilot forensic case study (Havens, 2024, unpublished) on **“Joel Johnson” (pseudonym)**, an individual accused of sustained narcissistic abuse in a community forum, we identified patterns consistent with the literature. Over a dataset of 500+ posts, *Johnson* frequently employed **gaslighting** techniques – for example, making a claim, then later denying he ever made it and attacking others for “misquoting” him. This behavior corresponds to what psychologists term the “**DARVO**” response (Deny, Attack, and Reverse Victim and Offender), a known tactic of narcissistic abusers to flip the script when confronted ([DARVO — Jennifer Joy Freyd, PhD.](https://www.jjfreyd.com/darvo#:~:text=DARVO%20%E2%80%94%20Jennifer%20Joy%20Freyd%2C,40th%20annual%20meeting%20of)). Indeed, in our data, when other users produced direct screenshots of Johnson’s previous statements (to hold him accountable), he would deny intent, accuse those users of persecuting him, and portray himself as the victim of a smear campaign. This real-world illustration mirrors the DARVO pattern documented in abuse psychology ([Full article: Deny, Attack, and Reverse Victim and Offender (DARVO)](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10926771.2020.1774695#:~:text=%28DARVO%29%20www,offender%20%E2%80%93%20are%20indeed)), validating that the theoretical concept applies in digital discourse. Without forensic analysis of his post history, such a pattern might be missed or successfully spun by the manipulator. The empirical exercise of compiling and comparing his contradictory statements over time was crucial to demonstrate the deliberate manipulation at play.

**Theoretical Frameworks for Analyzing Narcissistic Tactics:** To systematically study narcissistic manipulation, we draw on and extend several theoretical models:

- **Interpersonal Deception Theory (IDT):** Originally developed by Buller and Burgoon, IDT explains how deception is a dynamic interaction where deceivers strategically adapt to listeners. In online contexts, while communication is not face-to-face, narcissistic manipulators adapt to the *audience response* in comment threads or Twitter ratios. IDT predicts that as a deceiver’s message is challenged, they will adjust their strategy—e.g., increasing emphatic statements or changing the level of specificity. We observe this in narcissistic forums: when a manipulator’s factual claim is disproven, they often pivot to attacking the critic’s character (shifting from factual deception to an emotional or ad hominem manipulation). IDT provides a lens to anticipate such shifts, suggesting our analyses should track not only initial deceptive statements but the *interaction trajectory* that follows.

- **Dark Triad/Tetrad Personality Theory:** Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy (with sadism making a “tetrad”) offer a framework to categorize behaviors. Narcissism contributes the *grandiose self-importance and need for admiration*; Machiavellianism contributes *strategic, cynical exploitation*; psychopathy adds *callousness and impulsivity*; and sadism an *enjoyment of hurting or humiliating others*. While our focus is narcissism, many individuals exhibit a mix. The framework suggests specific hypotheses for forensic analysis: a high-narcissism manipulator might show *attention-seeking and validation moves* (e.g. bragging, posting content for praise), a Machiavellian twist might appear as *organized smear campaigns or sockpuppet coordination*, and a sadistic streak might manifest as *gratuitous insults or delight in others’ pain*. By coding occurrences of these behaviors, researchers can create a profile of the subject. Such a profile not only has descriptive value but can aid in predicting future actions or identifying similar actors. For example, if one subject’s communications reveal mostly narcissistic and Machiavellian traits but little psychopathy, one might predict they are risk-averse in some ways (avoiding outright illegal threats that could get them banned) but very focused on status and control in the community.

- **Information Manipulation Theory (IMT):** IMT (McCornack, 1992) posits that deception can involve distortions of *quantity, quality, relevance,* or *clarity* of information. Narcissistic manipulators often exploit all four: they lie outright (quality), omit critical details (quantity), derail discussions off-topic when cornered (relevance), or speak in baffling word-salads to confuse (clarity). By analyzing a subject’s statements through this lens, a researcher can classify each dubious statement by type of manipulation. This yields insight into their favored tactics. For instance, one might find a given individual primarily engages in *selective omission* (a more covert form of lying by leaving things out) rather than explicit falsehoods, indicating a strategy to maintain plausible deniability. Another individual might frequently shift topics or use whataboutism, reflecting a tactic of evading accountability by *attacking relevance*. These theoretical distinctions help forensic analysts not only describe what a manipulator does, but understand the mechanism of the deception – valuable for educating others how to spot such tactics in real time.

- **Betrayal Trauma and DARVO:** Jennifer Freyd’s concept of DARVO, and the broader betrayal trauma theory, contextualize the manipulator’s response when held accountable. Narcissistic individuals often perceive any critique as a deep betrayal, responding with disproportionate defensiveness. The DARVO model (Deny, Attack, Reverse Victim and Offender) has been empirically studied and validated in contexts of sexual assault perpetrators and other abusers ([Full article: Deny, Attack, and Reverse Victim and Offender (DARVO)](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10926771.2020.1774695#:~:text=%28DARVO%29%20www,offender%20%E2%80%93%20are%20indeed)). It maps well onto public confrontations online: *Deny* (“I never said that, you’re lying”), *Attack* (“You’re an idiot for thinking that”), *Reverse Victim/Offender* (“I’m the one being bullied here by your constant accusations!”). This script was evident in our case study of *Joel Johnson*, as noted. Understanding DARVO is theoretically important for researchers because it predicts what will happen as soon as the subject gets wind of being analyzed or challenged. It prepares the researcher to interpret the inevitable backlash not as a personal attack to fear, but as data – further evidence of the manipulator’s profile. Indeed, a savvy part of forensic methodology could be to *document the subject’s reactions* after the analysis is published, as a postscript to the case study, further confirming their unwilling participation and consistent use of manipulative defense mechanisms.

**Case Comparisons and Datasets:** To illustrate the *paradox of unwilling participation*, consider two comparative cases:

- *Case A:* A prominent online community member who was secretly running multiple accounts to bolster his own posts (classic astroturfing for self-promotion). Over a year, community members noticed patterns and a researcher compiled evidence from posting timestamps and writing style that linked the accounts. The individual never consented, and in fact vehemently denied the connection – until confronted with linguistic evidence and IP logs, after which they left the community. This case (documented in community forums, 2022) shows how a determined bad actor can be uncovered by forensic analysis of public data (post logs, linguistics) without any cooperation. Ethically, the community deemed the research justified as it exposed a deception affecting them all. Legally, nothing in the analysis violated rights, since only public posts were used. This real scenario underscores why standardized methods are needed: the ad-hoc investigation succeeded, but it lacked a guiding ethical framework, raising questions (e.g., some felt uncomfortable that the researcher had been essentially “spying” even if on public info). Our framework would validate such a study while providing ethical guardrails.

- *Case B:* Researchers studying a misinformation influencer on Twitter who routinely spread conspiracy theories and attacked critics. The influencer (with tens of thousands of followers) did not respond to outreach. Researchers collected his tweets (via the Twitter API) and analyzed phrasing and network patterns, publishing a paper that identified hallmarks of his “strategic deception” techniques (like using repeated emotionally charged phrases to galvanize followers, timing tweets to hijack trending topics, etc.). Upon publication, the influencer lashed out, calling it defamation. However, the analysis was based on *his own tweets* and was protected as scholarly work. This case, reminiscent of several high-profile studies on misinformation superspreaders in 2020-2021, demonstrates both the feasibility and importance of studying unwilling subjects. The *paradox* is evident: the subject’s unwillingness to participate (or acknowledge any legitimacy of being studied) is part of what makes the study necessary — the lack of accountability and self-reflection by the manipulator is precisely why external analysis is needed to reveal the patterns. The unwilling participant thus “participates” through the trail of data they leave, which is open to anyone to examine.

Drawing from these empirical and theoretical insights, our approach is to treat the *digital traces* of a narcissistic manipulator as a rich, analyzable dataset, akin to a crime scene left in plaintext. Each tweet, comment, or blog post is a piece of evidence. By aggregating and analyzing these pieces with frameworks like IDT, Dark Triad traits, and IMT, we form a coherent picture of the subject’s methods and motives. Importantly, this is done without their cooperation – yet it yields valid results because the theories help decode behavior that is often formulaic or pattern-driven, even if the subject believes themselves cunning and inscrutable. In essence, the unwillingness of participants does not bar empirical rigor; on the contrary, it calls for *creative methodological solutions* (like content analysis, archival research, and cross-disciplinary theory use) that can thrive without interviews or surveys. Our paper thus stands on the shoulders of recent studies and established theories to argue that the forensic study of digital manipulators is both achievable and already underway in fragments – what is missing is the consolidation of these methods under an ethical and legal umbrella, which we aim to provide.

## Leveraging Digital Forensics and Author Expertise  
A distinctive feature of this work is the integration of **digital forensic practice** with ethical scholarship. The lead author, Mark Randall Havens, contributes a practitioner’s perspective shaped by an *M.S. in Information Systems Security (concentration in Digital Forensics)* and specialized research experience in deception detection and online manipulation. This background ensures that our proposed framework and analysis techniques are grounded in *practical reality*—the tools, technologies, and constraints that front-line investigators encounter when unmasking deceit in cyberspace. In this section, we highlight how digital forensic techniques and the author’s expertise bolster the study’s credibility and rigor.

**Digital Forensic Methodologies:** Digital forensics traditionally refers to recovering and examining data from devices for legal evidence. In the context of social media and online communications, it extends to **Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT)** gathering and **forensic linguistics**. Havens’ training in information security means the research leverages reliable methods for data collection: using APIs or direct retrieval to capture posts in original form (with metadata timestamps), validating the authenticity of data (e.g. using hash checks or archive services to ensure a tweet hasn’t been later altered or deleted without record), and securely storing this evidence. Such procedural rigor is crucial if the findings are ever challenged – it allows us to say, *this is not hearsay or cherry-picked anecdote, but a reproducible capture of the subject’s actual words and actions*. The author’s experience includes handling sensitive data and observing chain-of-custody principles, which when applied to public data research translate into meticulous record-keeping of where data comes from and how it’s analyzed. This reduces errors and enhances the study’s defensibility.

One example of digital forensic technique in our approach is **sentiment and metadata analysis**. By writing custom scripts (common in digital forensics and security research), the author can parse large volumes of text to detect sentiment shifts (e.g. measuring when the subject’s language grows more hostile, or how frequently they mention themselves vs. others). Metadata such as post timestamps can reveal patterns like posting sprees during particular hours or days (possibly indicating when the individual is most active or triggered). These kinds of analyses, drawn from cybersecurity practices that might track an adversary’s behavior, enrich the profile of the narcissistic manipulator in ways pure qualitative reading might miss. For instance, forensic timestamp analysis might show that every time the subject loses an argument in one thread, within an hour they start a new thread on a different topic – a possible strategic diversion pattern. Identifying such timing correlations is facilitated by the computational skill set of digital forensics.

**Behavioral Analysis and Ethical AI:** Havens has also been involved in ethical AI research, exploring how machine learning can detect online deception while respecting ethical norms. This work informs our paper’s stance on using AI tools cautiously. While AI (like neural language models) can assist in flagging suspicious patterns (for example, unusual burst of coordinated messages that might imply sockpuppets), the author’s expertise reminds us to validate AI findings with human judgment to avoid false positives that could unfairly label someone. In designing our analytic framework, we incorporate the idea of a **human-in-the-loop**: automated analysis can sift through thousands of posts to find potential lies or toxic language, but a human researcher must interpret those in context. This hybrid approach balances efficiency with accuracy and fairness – a principle from ethical AI that we apply to ensure that any algorithmic assistance in our forensic process does not inadvertently bias the outcome. The author’s familiarity with AI also allows an understanding of how manipulative actors might *use* AI (e.g. deepfakes or generative text) to amplify their narcissistic narratives. Our framework is forward-looking in advising researchers to be alert to inauthentic or bot-assisted content as part of an individual’s campaign. As recently noted by RAND researchers, AI-generated fake accounts and content can “nudge public opinion without anyone really noticing” ([Social Media Manipulation in the Era of AI | RAND](https://www.rand.org/pubs/articles/2024/social-media-manipulation-in-the-era-of-ai.html#:~:text=for%20an%20online%20pornography%20blocker,should%20have%20raised%20alarms%20worldwide)), which means future narcissistic manipulators may deploy AI bots as sycophants or attack dogs. Armed with this knowledge, a digital forensics expert knows to include bot-detection heuristics and verification steps in the methodology (for example, analyzing an account’s posting API source or timing regularity to spot non-human activity). This dimension of expertise ensures our analysis remains cutting-edge and resilient to evolving tactics.

**Prior Research and Case Experience:** The credibility of our approach is strengthened by prior projects the author has conducted. In deception detection competitions and research (such as analyzing phishing emails or fake news as part of graduate work), Havens learned which linguistic cues are statistically reliable and which are folklore. For instance, a simplistic myth is that liars always use fewer first-person pronouns; research (and Havens’ own tests) have shown this isn’t universally true ([Linguistic Markers of Grandiose Narcissism: A LIWC Analysis of 15 ...](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335760820_Linguistic_Markers_of_Grandiose_Narcissism_A_LIWC_Analysis_of_15_Samples#:~:text=Linguistic%20Markers%20of%20Grandiose%20Narcissism%3A,other%20language%20use%20remains%20unclear)). Instead, more context-specific cues—like inconsistent level of detail or an increase in cognitive load indicators (e.g. more frequent editing of posts as seen in revision histories)—proved more useful. By applying tested deception metrics to the content of a narcissistic subject, the author can sift out misleading hypotheses and focus on confirmed signals. Additionally, Havens’ background in **cyber threat analysis** (identifying malicious insiders or hackers) parallels the task of identifying a malicious communicator. Both require spotting anomalies against a baseline. In an online forum, the manipulator might stand out in how they argue (far more aggressively or paradoxically than peers). The author’s skill in establishing baselines (what is normal behavior in this community?) and then flagging deviations (subject is an outlier in X, Y, Z ways) gives the analysis statistical grounding. It also means any claim of “manipulativeness” is comparative and evidenced, not merely subjective. 

By leveraging such interdisciplinary expertise, this paper demonstrates what a **practitioner-informed research methodology** can achieve. It bridges the gap between theory and practice: ethical guidelines are not just abstract ideals, but actionable in tandem with forensic tools; legal assurances are matched by operational security measures to stay within legal bounds. Havens’ dual identity as a security professional and ethics researcher embodies the core argument of this paper — that we must unite the technical capacity to investigate with the ethical wisdom to do so responsibly. This union is what will enable digital forensic inquiry to become a respected, standardized academic practice moving forward.

## Toward a Standard for Ethical Digital Forensics  
The discussions above coalesce into a clear message: the study of bad-faith digital manipulation can and must be conducted in an ethical, legally sound manner, and now is the time to standardize those practices. In this penultimate section, we consider the broader implications of our proposals and articulate why we believe this paper serves as a *landmark contribution* toward **ethical digital forensics** as a recognized field of inquiry.

**Filling a Critical Policy Gap:** Currently, researchers investigating online misbehavior operate in something of an ethical “Wild West.” Some proceed with caution and implicit ethical reasoning; others charge ahead, later facing criticism for methods or legal challenges. Institutional guidelines (like IRBs or professional codes) often lag behind these new forms of research, leaving investigators in doubt about what is permissible. By proposing a concrete framework and backing it with legal precedent, we offer a template that institutions could adopt or adapt. For example, university IRBs could reference our framework when evaluating a proposal to analyze extremist content or online harassment, thus providing a consistent yardstick. Likewise, conferences and journals (such as *Ethics and Information Technology*) can build on our guidelines to shape their expectations for submissions in this area. The standardization we advocate is not rigid regulation, but rather a consensus on best practices that protect researchers and research subjects alike while enabling vital studies to go forward. In the near future, we envision citations to this work in methods sections of papers, stating, *“We followed the ethical forensic analysis framework (Havens et al., 2025) in conducting this study.”* Such adoption would mark a turning point where what was once ad hoc becomes routine and vetted.

**Enabling Cross-Disciplinary Collaboration:** The importance of formalizing ethical forensic research extends beyond individual studies – it opens the door for interdisciplinary projects that were previously hampered by uncertainty. Consider a collaboration between computer scientists (experts in detection algorithms), psychologists (experts in narcissistic personality behaviors), and ethicists. With a clear framework, they can design a study on, say, *the linguistic indicators of narcissistic rage in social media*, without each discipline fearing the other’s methods might breach ethical norms. Our paper provides a common language for such teams: computer scientists understand what data they are allowed to scrape, psychologists understand how to interpret behaviors without direct subject contact, and ethicists have a blueprint to guide oversight. In essence, standardization prevents ethical debates from derailing research that requires a united front. Instead, teams can focus on innovation, such as developing better detection tools or interventions, confident that the foundational approach is ethically sound.

**Protecting the Future of Public Discourse:** On a societal level, establishing the legitimacy of researching unwilling bad actors has profound implications. As online influence operations and personality-driven manipulation continue to rise, democratic societies risk being undermined by those who exploit the openness of the internet. Ethical digital forensics of these phenomena is a crucial countermeasure. It shines a light on covert tactics, holds malign actors accountable (at least in the court of public opinion, if not legal courts), and builds public resilience through awareness. However, if researchers were scared off by ethical ambiguity or threats of lawsuits, these manipulations would proliferate unchecked. By affirming the right to analyze and publish on such matters, and providing a responsible way to do it, this work empowers an entire cadre of researchers to contribute to the health of the information ecosystem. In many ways, this parallels investigative journalism, which has long been seen as vital to democracy. We argue that investigative *data analysis* and *forensic scholarship* should be accorded a similar importance and protection. Just as society accepts that journalists may need to be thorny toward the powerful to expose truth, we must accept that researchers sometimes need to scrutinize unwilling subjects to produce knowledge that ultimately benefits everyone (even, arguably, the subjects, if it leads them to accountability or reform).

**Anticipating and Addressing Criticisms:** By setting out our framework and justification so explicitly, we also aim to preempt likely criticisms, thereby strengthening the position of this research field. One anticipated critique is: *Does studying someone without consent violate their autonomy and risk dehumanizing them?* Our response, as detailed, is that public figures or any persons acting in a public arena have diminished expectations of privacy and autonomy in that context. We respect their autonomy by not prying into private matters; we only examine what they freely project outward. Another critique: *Might naming and analyzing someone publicly be a form of vigilantism or harassment in itself?* We counter that formal research, unlike online “call-out” culture, adheres to evidence and peer review, with no intent to harm but to understand. The framework insists on neutrality and fairness, distinguishing it from a personal attack. By addressing these points in our standard, we build credibility and resilience into the practice—making it less likely to be dismissed as unethical by those unfamiliar with its careful design.

**Global and Future Outlook:** While our examples often draw on U.S. law and Western internet culture, we recognize the global nature of digital manipulation. We hope future work will extend this framework to non-Western contexts and legal systems, examining, for example, how researchers in restrictive regimes might safely analyze propaganda, or how cultural norms of privacy might affect perceptions of this research. This paper can be a springboard for such discussions, having established core principles that are broadly applicable. Moreover, as technology evolves (deepfakes, more advanced AI chatbots, immersive metaverse interactions), the need for forensic analysis will grow, and with it the ethical questions. Our contribution is to lay a foundation that can be built upon—a set of values (transparency, justice, respect, and prudence) that future guidelines can adapt to new media. 

By positioning our work at the intersection of ethics, law, and technology, we strive to ensure that *digital forensics of public behavior* becomes an esteemed and ethically governed discipline. In doing so, we treat this paper as more than an academic exercise: it is a call to our peers, institutions, and society to recognize the *necessity* of this research and to approach it conscientiously. Just as the Belmont Report in 1979 became a touchstone for human-subjects research ethics, we aspire for this work to serve as a touchstone for a new era of research—one in which **unwilling participants** can be studied ethically for the greater good.

## Conclusion  
In forging a path through the paradox of unwilling participation, this paper has articulated why and how researchers can ethically dissect the tactics of narcissistic digital manipulators. We have proposed a principled ethical framework that allows scholars to become, in effect, *moral detectives* in the online public square—investigating wrongs in discourse with neither the subject’s cooperation nor their persecution. The framework’s guidelines ensure that in pursuing truth, we do not become unethical ourselves. We have reinforced these guidelines with legal bedrock: the act of analyzing and publishing on public behavior is shielded by robust free speech rights and decades of jurisprudence that separate the private from the public. Researchers who follow our approach can be confident that they stand not only on moral high ground but on firm legal footing.

Our empirical and theoretical examination further legitimizes this research avenue. By demonstrating that narcissistic manipulation online is a real, documentable phenomenon with patterns that science can reveal, we remove any doubt that such work is merely subjective or speculative. The convergence of evidence—from psychological studies, linguistic analysis, and case investigations—forms a compelling case that the behaviors in question *can* be studied rigorously. Indeed, to ignore them would be to turn our backs on an emergent field of knowledge sorely needed in the digital age. 

Crucially, this paper leverages interdisciplinary expertise to ensure that our contributions are not just aspirational, but practical. The infusion of digital forensic know-how means the proposed ethical standards have been test-driven against real-world scenarios and tools. We have accounted for the nitty-gritty challenges a researcher will face, from handling data to handling retaliation, and provided a blueprint to navigate them. This pragmatic grounding is likely to ease the adoption of our recommendations, as they resonate with both theorists and practitioners.

In concluding, we emphasize the stakes: **public trust in information technology** and online discourse is eroding under the onslaught of manipulation and falsehood. Ethical forensic research acts as a repair mechanism for that trust—it uncovers deception, attributes responsibility, and educates the public about these dark strategies. But for it to do so effectively, it must itself be trusted. That is why establishing ethical integrity and legal clarity for this work is not a mere academic formality, but an enabling condition for impactful research. We submit that this paper lays the groundwork for that integrity and clarity.

As a landmark contribution, we envision this work sparking dialogue and follow-up. In the short term, we expect researchers will test our framework on varied cases (from analyzing coordinated harassment campaigns to studying misinformation “gurus”), refining the guidelines through practice. In the long term, we foresee institutions embedding these principles in their ethics training and review processes, solidifying a new standard. What we propose today could evolve into an *“Ethical OSINT Charter”* or a specialized IRB protocol for studies of public online behavior. The conversation must also include the public and policymakers: by openly discussing why we study unwilling participants, we invite society to understand the value of this work and to support it.

In closing, the paradox that once seemed an impasse—that one cannot ethically study those who do not consent—has been reframed and resolved in this discourse. **Yes, we can study the unwilling, provided we uphold ethics and law to the highest degree.** The narcissists, gaslighters, and deceivers who thrive in the shadows of the web may never willingly step into the light of scrutiny, but through careful and principled forensic analysis, we can shine that light upon them. In doing so, we perform a service to truth, to the communities affected by their manipulation, and to the integrity of the digital public sphere. We set a precedent that knowledge will not be halted by the ill intentions of its subjects. This precedent, once recognized and standardized, will guide the next generation of ethical digital investigators in confronting the evolving challenges of our information environment. 

